E is for Errors

Here is a summary of S.P. Corder’s work on Learner Errors from the Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics 

Types of Errors

Native speakers may produce errors (readily correctable) especially in conditions of stress, indecision and fatigue. It is logical to expect that non-native speakers may do the same. These are called ‘lapses’ and are of no special importance to the teacher.

Non-native speaker errors may be:

1. Referential errors, e.g. cap instead of hat
2. Register errors, e.g. pick instead of select.
3. Social appropriacy errors, e.g. when they select a wrong greeting form.
4. Textual errors, e.g. when they cannot relate two sentences to convey their intended meaning.

Referential and textual errors interfere with understanding. Social and register errors affect interpersonal relations. Receptive (comprehension) errors are more difficult to deal with than productive errors.

Analysing Errors

a. Transfer, i.e. when the learner carries mother tongue habits into the foreign language
b. Analogy, i.e. when the learner overgeneralises in the foreign language.
c. Teacher induced, when they stem from the teaching process.

 

a. Presystematic when they are randonm
b. Systematic, when they are regular
c. Inconsistent, when he can correct himself

The Significance of Errors

Corder’s most fundamental contribution was changing how the field views learner errors. Traditionally, errors were seen as negative signs of failure or simply the result of bad habits carried over from the learner’s first language (L1). Corder argued that errors are not “bad habits” to be eradicated but are instead evidence of learning and a window into the learner’s mind.

Errors are significant for three key audiences:

• For the Teacher: They show how far a learner has progressed toward the target language and what remains to be learned.
  
  • Errors made by a group of learners can be meaningful to the teacher only if the class forms a homogeneous group
  • Errors of individuals are important because they help us to understand their linguistic development and may indicate strategies the teacher may adopt.

• For the Researcher: They provide evidence for how language is learned or acquired, revealing the strategies learners use.

• For the Learner: Making errors is a necessary part of the learning process, as it allows the learner to test hypotheses about the rules of the new language.
  

🔍 Error vs. Mistake

One of Corder’s most practical distinctions is between an “error” and a “mistake”.

This distinction is crucial for teachers. A mistake might only require a gentle reminder, while an error signals a gap in understanding that needs to be addressed.

🗺️ The Three Stages of Error Analysis

Corder proposed a three-step procedure for analyzing learner errors:

1. Recognition/Identification – The analyst must first recognize that an error exists. This requires correctly interpreting what the learner intended to say. Errors can be “overt” (obviously ungrammatical, like “she go“) or “covert” (grammatically correct but nonsensical in context, like responding “I’m fine” to the question “Who are you?”).

2. Description – This involves classifying the error by comparing the learner’s sentence to a correctly reconstructed version in the target language. Errors can be categorized by linguistic level (e.g., phonological, grammatical, lexical) or by the type of linguistic process involved:

   • Omission: Leaving out a necessary element (e.g., “I very happy” instead of “I am very happy”).

   • Addition: Including an unnecessary element (e.g., “He doesn’t knows“).

   • Substitution: Using the wrong word or form (e.g., “I opened the radio” instead of “I turned onthe radio”).

   • Misordering: Putting words in the wrong order (e.g., “What you are doing?“).

3. Explanation – This is the most important and challenging stage. It seeks to identify the psycholinguistic source of the error. Corder highlighted several causes:

   • L1 Interference / Transfer: Errors caused by the influence of the learner’s mother tongue.

   • Overgeneralization: The learner applies a rule from the target language too broadly (e.g., “I goed to the park”).

   • Teacher-Induced / Erroneous Input: Errors that stem from the way a rule was taught or from a misleading explanation in materials.

📈 Stages of Learner Development (Error Types)

Corder also proposed a developmental classification of errors, suggesting learners pass through three stages:

1. Pre-systematic Stage: The learner is unaware of the specific rule. Errors are random, and the learner cannot correct or explain them.

2. Systematic Stage: The learner has discovered a rule, but it is the wrong one. Errors are consistent and systematic, and the learner can explain the (incorrect) rule but still cannot correct the error.

3. Post-systematic Stage: The learner knows the correct rule but applies it inconsistently (a “performance” issue). At this stage, the learner can self-correct when the error is pointed out.

This framework helps teachers understand where a learner is in their development of a specific language feature, guiding when to teach a rule again (systematic stage) or simply prompt for more careful application (post-systematic stage).

Bibliography